Climate and WASH.

 

Climate-related hazards, shocks and stresses present a growing threat to WASH services. Governments and development partners are responding to the risks of climate change by addressing climate resilience, adaptation and mitigation. This section focuses on how countries and development partners are defining climate-resilient WASH, how climate is included in WASH policies/plans (including reaching populations disproportionally affected by climate change), climate risk assessments, monitoring climate-resilient WASH, climate finance and development partner support to WASH and climate

In the GLAAS 2024/2025 cycle, countries and development partners were asked how they define climate-resilient WASH. Thirty-nine per cent of countries (37 of 96) reported having a national definition of climate-resilient WASH and below are some of the definitions. • Belize: Climate-resilient WASH refers to WASH services and behaviours that continue to deliver benefits, or are appropriately restored, within a changing climate context and despite climate-induced hazards. • Cameroon: The resilient WASH sector is defined as the set of measures that aim to build and/or develop water and sanitation infrastructure and superstructures that are adapted, sustainable and resilient to climate shocks. • Myanmar: The ability of people and systems to anticipate, adapt to and recover from the negative effects of disasters and climate change in a manner that reduces vulnerability, protects livelihoods, accelerates and sustains recovery, and supports economic and social development while preserving cultural integrity. • United Republic of Tanzania: Climate resilience is the ability to anticipate, prepare for and respond to hazardous events, trends or disturbances related to climate. This has been defined in the National Environment Policy of 2021. • Zimbabwe: Climate-resilient WASH involves designing and implementing a WASH system that helps to ensure WASH infrastructure and services are sustainable and resilient to climate-related risks and that WASH contributes to building community resilience to climate change. SWA has also worked to develop a global normative definition of climate-resilient WASH (Box 10.1).

About half of the development partners participating in the GLAAS 2024/2025 development partner survey reported having a definition of climate-resilient WASH. Below are examples of how some development partners define climate-resilient WASH. • ADB aligns with a widely accepted definition of climate-resilient WASH services. These are those that anticipate, respond to, cope with, recover from, adapt to, or transform in the face of climate-related events, trends and disturbances. • FCDO uses the global definition developed for consideration by the Global Goal on Adaptation / United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. • Osprey Foundation does not have a unique definition of climate-resilient WASH but aligns with the definitions developed by UNICEF and the SWA Climate Task Team. • WaterAid’s definition of climate-resilient WASH is WASH services and behaviours that continue to deliver benefits, or that are appropriately restored, within a changing climate context and despite climate-induced hazards. Robust, sustainable WASH systems can improve resilience to climate change. In addition to this internal definition, WaterAid also aligns with the SWA sector-wide definition of climate-resilient WASH, of which WaterAid was involved in the collaborative development process. • Water.org has begun to apply the SWA climate-resilient WASH definition to its programming in fiscal year 2025. The organization is in the process of developing more specific indicators that align both with the framework and to its interventions and priorities.

In national WASH policies and plans, countries reported they are more likely to address risks of climate variability and climate change than they are climate resilience of WASH technologies and management systems or climate mitigation. Additionally, climate issues are more frequently addressed in drinking-water and sanitation plans than in institutional WASH plans (Table 10.1).

The majority of countries also reported including measures to reach populations disproportionally affected by climate change in their WASH policies and plans (Table 10.2). However, fewer countries are taking action to monitor progress or allocate resources towards the measures.

A climate risk assessment aims to show which communities and WASH services are most at risk from current climate variability and projected climate change in the medium to long term, providing valuable evidence in making the case for effective action by governments and their WASH sector partners. According to the GLAAS 2024/2025 country survey, 57% of countries (58 of 102) reported having performed a climate risk assessment. Of those that have performed a climate risk assessment, 88% (49 of 56) have conducted a risk assessment in the last 5 years (2020–2024) and 61% (34 of 56) in the last 2 years (2023 or 2024).

For many of the countries, the need for the climate risk assessments was sometimes triggered during the process of formulating national adaptation programmes of action or during development and revision of WASH sector policies and strategies. Countries reported multiple types of climate risk assessments undertaken at different levels: national, subnational, municipal and sector. Additional assessments were conducted for basins (water resources), coastal regions and WASH systems. The climate risk assessments have been used in the formulation of national climate policies and strategies, in disaster risk management policies, in mainstreaming climate resilience into WASH sector policies and strategies, and in climate-resilient budgeting. Below are examples of countries’ climate risk assessments and how they have been used in national planning. • A workshop to develop resilience solutions for WASH services in Côte d’Ivoire was held in December 2024. Climate risk was defined as the product of Hazard, Vulnerability and Exposure (Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability). Assessment of exposure and vulnerability was carried out for each subsector: (a) rural drinking-water supply, (b) urban drinking-water supply, (c) rural sanitation and hygiene, (d) urban sanitation and hygiene and (e) WASH in institutions. An action plan was determined for each subsector detailing the specific activities and identifying the main organizations for their implementation. An estimated budget and a timetable have been determined. • In Italy, climate risk is defined as the combination of three main elements: (a) hazard: extreme weather events and long-term climate changes (such as heat waves, sea-level rise, droughts and floods); (b) exposure: the degree to which natural features, infrastructure, population and economic systems are exposed to the effects of climate change; and (c) vulnerability: the degree of sensitivity or adaptive capacity of areas or sectors exposed to climate impacts. Risk assessment is based on the interaction of these factors to identify the areas and sectors most at risk. Specific climate risk assessments are undertaken during the implementation of WSPs. • The climate risk assessment for Nepal’s WASH sector evaluated the risks and vulnerabilities posed by climate change using a tailored framework based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fifth Assessment Report. It identified hazards, exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity across districts, provinces and physiographic regions. Data were collected through field consultations and expert feedback, and normalized for analysis. Vulnerability and risk indices were calculated for medium- (2030) and long- (2050) term time frames under different scenarios. The study highlighted significant impacts of rising temperatures, variable precipitation and drying water sources, with disparities in regional sensitivity and adaptive capacity. The results aim to guide investments in effective, efficient and impactful adaptation strategies. The climate risk assessment has been integrated into Nepal’s national planning to enhance climate resilience in the WASH sector. Its findings informed the national adaptation plan, guiding strategies to address vulnerabilities and risks identified across districts and regions. The assessment provided evidence-based data to prioritize investments in adaptive infrastructure and services, ensuring efficient resource allocation. It also shaped climate-resilient policies for WASH systems, incorporating adaptive measures into sectoral guidelines. Furthermore, the assessment supported capacity-building initiatives and cross-sectoral collaboration, fostering climate-informed decision-making to mitigate long-term impacts and enhance the sustainability of WASH services nationwide. • In Thailand, the Ministry of Public Health has utilized risk information to formulate policies on climate change adaptation, resulting in the development of the Public Health Climate Change AdaptationAction Plan (Phase 1) 2021-2030. This action plan considers the reduction of foodborne and waterborne diseases, the health impacts of climate change, and the guidelines for reducing risks and preventing health impacts in five major areas: (a) vector-borne and waterborne diseases, (b) heat-related diseases, (c) health hazards from extreme weather conditions (such as droughts and floods), (d) food security and (e) diseases related to air pollution, which have been linked to the national adaptation plan

The majority of countries do not yet have standardized indicators for routine monitoring of climate-resilient WASH. Climate-resilient indicators for urban drinking-water are most common, with 39% of countries (31 of 79) reporting having them. Only 28% of countries (24 of 85) reported having climate-resilient WASH indicators for rural sanitation (Fig. 10.1). Box 10.2 highlights the work that WHO and UNICEF have undertaken to identify global indicators to monitor climate-resilient WASH.

In addition to reporting the existence of indicators for monitoring climate-resilient WASH, countries were also asked to report their indicators, examples of which are included below.

 • Cambodia: Number of districts with entrepreneurs providing sanitation products and services for sanitation in challenging environments; percentage of households in challenging environments with access to basic water supply services that are available all year round and are climate resilient; number of communes implementing climate-resilient WSPs based on the National Guideline for Rural WSPs. 

• Costa Rica: Percentage of sanitation systems in associations managing community aqueduct and sewage systems with formulated sanitation safety plans, integrating criteria for adaptation to climate change. 

• Ethiopia: Number of urban and rural water utilities that develop and implement climate-resilient WSPs. 

• Guinea: Number of flood-resilient latrines built; level of investment in climate-resilient infrastructure.

• Italy: Number of water outages, users and hours subject to scheduled/unscheduled service interruptions (lasting greater than or equal to 1 hour) due to water emergencies related to water scarcity and water quality; number of days and users involved in emergency replacement services such as water tanker trucks and jerry can distribution.

• Malawi: Proportion of the urban population with access to safely managed sanitation facilities that are flood resistant; proportion of rural households using climate-resilient sanitation facilities such as improved pit latrines with proper drainage. 

• Peru: Number of service providers with a climate change mitigation and adaptation plan approved and included in the Optimized Master Plan and Tariff Study implemented in areas vulnerable to climate change. 

• Serbia: Number of capital projects where climate change was considered during planning, construction and maintenance. 

• Sri Lanka: Number of climate-resilient WSPs. 

• Uganda: Number of key stakeholders trained on appropriate climate-resilient designs and standards for WASH services and infrastructure in urban areas; number of public awareness events aimed to increase household resilience to the impacts of climate change on WASH. In addition to having indicators to monitor climate-resilient WASH, it is also a topic that can be discussed during JSRs. Eighty-one per cent of countries (58 of 72) that conduct JSRs reported that climate resilience is included in the JSR. In the GLAAS 2024/2025 country survey, countries shared good practices and lessons learned from monitoring climate-resilient WASH. Below are some examples. 

• Monitoring the climate-resilient WASH sector in Chad is based on several key good practices. First, the integration of local climate data into planning makes it possible to anticipate impacts on WASH systems. In addition, engaging local communities in the monitoring and evaluation process ensures interventions meet their specific needs. Capacity-building for local agents and the adoption of innovative technologies such as geographic information systems are also crucial to improve the management of WASH resources. At the same time, cross-sectoral collaboration among water, health, agriculture and the environment promotes an integrated approach to climate resilience. Lessons learned from these practices underscore the importance of long-term planning to ensure the sustainability of interventions. Programmes must also be flexible and adaptable to new information and climatic conditions. Continual monitoring and evaluation are needed to measure the impact of interventions and adjust strategies accordingly. Raising awareness among communities about issues related to water management and climate change is essential to encourage sustainable behaviour. It is also crucial to ensure equitable access to WASH services, taking into account the needs of vulnerable populations. 

• Congo has a six-step approach to climate-resilient WASH. (a) Assessment: assessment of climateresilient WASH is informed by context-specific participatory assessments of hazards, vulnerabilities and barriers within WASH systems that affect water security, sanitation and hygiene. (b) Partnerships: there is collaboration with relevant partners to deliver a climate-resilient WASH agenda. Where risks and vulnerabilities exist outside the WASH sector’s area of influence (such as watershed degradation), the government partners with relevant actors who are well placed to address these issues. (c) Design: interventions of the WASH programme focus on addressing inequalities in access to WASH and barriers in WASH systems, using evidence to improve water security and resilience to climate change. (d) Implementation: climate-resilient WASH interventions are implemented to the highest standards, ensuring sustainability, scale and equity. (e) Monitoring and adaptation: the results of the work are monitored and adaptation is conducted accordingly. (f) Learning and influencing: lessons learned from the work are used to fuel thought leadership and influence change. 

• Namibia reported the following good practices: use of integrated climate data to inform planning and monitoring to ensure WASH systems are able to withstand climate variability; involving local communities in the monitoring process to enhance ownership and ensure local conditions are considered; and implementation of flexible monitoring frameworks that allow adjustments based on emerging climate trends and data. Lessons learned from Namibia include: – understanding the local environment and social and economic conditions is important for effective monitoring; – identifying and addressing gaps in data collection are important for assessing resilience; and – when a community is excluded from planning implementation and monitoring, it may feel left out and not take ownership of projects. 

• Monitoring climate-resilient WASH in Timor-Leste has produced good practices and valuable lessons learned, including: (a) community involvement: engagement involving local communities in implementation; (b) capacity-building: training and education for young people and community groups aimed at enhancing awareness of water protection initiatives; and (c) dissemination of information on effective environmental stewardship practices, including the importance of tree preservation.

Sixty per cent of countries (56 of 94) reported they have applied for climate finance for WASH from an external source. Of the applications submitted, 63% (35 of 56) were successful and US$ 2.3 billion has been received. Fifteen countries responded that their applications are still in progress.

 

 Countries reported that AFD, AfDB, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the InterAmerican Development Bank and the World Bank have provided climate finance. Some of the challenges and barriers to accessing climate funds reported by countries include: the need to develop bankable project proposals, demanding approval conditions from some funding agencies, gaps in human capacity in key government agencies, long processing times, lack of climate data to support project development, high levels of co-financing requirements, low sector prioritization and lack of coordination among responsible sector ministries.

Donors reporting to the OECD-CRS indicate how much of their ODA has been allocated and disbursed towards climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation. For each marker, donors indicate if the subject of the marker is the principal, a significant or not the objective of the aid being provided (2). In 2023, OECD-CRS data revealed that 31% of water and sanitation ODA disbursements (US$ 2.2 billion) was designated for climate change adaptation as the principal or a significant objective, while 14% (US$ 995 million) was designated for climate change mitigation as the principal or a significant objective. ODA support to the water and sanitation has been more focused on strengthening the resilience of WASH systems to the effects of climate change (climate change adaptation) than on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) (Fig. 10.2)

The majority of development partners participating in the GLAAS 2024/2025 development partner survey reported that they address climate resilience, mitigation and adaptation in their WASH aid/programming, with adaptation being the most popular topic. Additionally, IRC and UNICEF reported they also work on climate finance. Examples of development partners’ climate work are listed below. • As the WASH sector has been historically poor in mobilizing climate finance to ensure the provision of climate-resilient WASH services, UNICEF provides extensive support across the whole climate-resilient WASH programme design spectrum as outlined in UNICEF’s Climate Shift document. This includes an analysis of key stakeholders, national climate/WASH policies (to see if WASH is recognized as a national climate priority), understanding the climate science and the impact of climate change on WASH services, identification and delivery of appropriate solutions, mobilization of climate finance and monitoring the effectiveness of the solutions. UNICEF designs and delivers capacity-building materials and sessions for staff, government partners and WASH stakeholders across these activities. 

• Much of WaterAid’s work focuses on building resilience to climate change and implementing climateresilient WASH services. For example, work in Burkina Faso takes a systems-wide approach to connect across water users and create systems suitable for all climate scenarios. In Bangladesh, WaterAid works with women to lead and manage water treatment plants that can adjust to a changing climate. By specifically targeting women through this work, WaterAid is building its long-term resilience and access to resources for coping with climate change. A systems strengthening approach is applied across all climate resilience interventions.

 • In December 2024, nine multilateral development banks, including the World Bank, issued a joint commitment to water security at the One Water Summit in Riyadh, to significantly increase their joint support for climate-resilient water systems between 2025 and 2030, particularly in water-stressed regions. This includes expanding access to safe drinking-water and sanitation, improving irrigation, enhancing flood management and advancing sustainable water resources management to benefit hundreds of millions more people. Multilateral development banks will scale up financing through a mix of public, private and innovative funding sources, while supporting governance, policy and institutional reforms to ensure efficient, inclusive and sustainable water services. They also pledged to improve coordination, streamline implementation and share knowledge to maximize impact and deliver on the SDGs.