Climate Change and Hydro-meteorological Disasters.

Rising temperatures due to human-induced climate change – as well as changes in land use and water use – are accelerating changes in precipitation, evaporation, soil moisture, groundwater and streamflow (i.e. river discharge) patterns. Climate change is also accelerating glacier melt and other cryospheric changes, increasing the risks of hazards such as glacial lake outburst floods while also affecting the availability and timing of water resources for downstream communities. An increasingly erratic and unpredictable hydrological cycle is posing more threats to human well-being (through its impact on provision of food and water security, economic stability, public health, etc.), and to environment and ecosystem health. Intensified occurrence and magnitude of hydrometeorological hazards highlight the urgent need for adaptive, resilient and integrated approaches to disaster risk management (DRM) strategies. Extreme hydrometeorological phenomena primarily drive water-related hazards. Hydrometeorological disasters can disproportionately affect women, girls and gender-diverse people due to systemic inequalities in access to resources, decision-making and services. Women may particularly face heightened risks to their livelihoods, rights, safety and health (especially menstrual health and hygiene). Intersecting inequalities such as class, race, age and socioeconomic status can often compound burdens. In addition, women and men may experience disaster risks differently due to gendered roles and capacities – worsening existing disparities. This can hinder equitable resilience outcomes across the four stages of DRM:mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.

Transformative and just resilience to water-related weather and climate risks depends on applying a gender lens – rooted in sensitivity, responsiveness and inclusivity – into multisectoral frameworks that align disaster risk reduction (DRR), water resources planning, river basin management and climate adaptation. For example, hydrometeorological services (such as early warning systems (EWSs)) that are sensitive to disparities, responsive in intervention and inclusive in representation can help to ensure people of all genders are engaged, protected and empowered. United Nations global policy frameworks like the Paris Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)) call for bold inclusive climate action through SDG 5 (gender equality) and SDG 10 (reduced inequalities). Gender considerations are further supported by: the Gender Action Plan to Support Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the Convention on theElimination of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen General Recommendation No. 37 on gender-related dimensions of DRR in a changing climate and the agreed conclusions of the sixty-sixth session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women on achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls in the context of climate change, environmental and DRR policies and programmes.

This part highlights how integrating gender perspectives into DRM practices can enhance community resilience, promote equality and drive development impact. The narrative is anchored in three key dimensions that underpin climate resilience to high-impact hydrometeorological events: gender-sensitive, gender-responsive and gender-transformative. While gender-sensitive efforts highlight disparities, gender-responsive and especially gender-transformative approaches address root causes and systemic inequalities, supporting more effective, equitable and sustainable disaster resilience and water management outcomes.

 Specifically: • Gender-sensitive strategies recognize and document gender differences in exposure and vulnerability, but do not necessarily address underlying inequalities. • Gender-responsive actions proactively address diverse needs, vulnerabilities and capacities by designing and implementing solutions tailored to these differences. Examples include gender-aware EWS, safe shelters that ensure privacy and meet hygiene requirements, and recovery programmes focused on genderdiverse people. • Gender-transformative approaches transform systems to be equal and participatory for all genders. They ensure meaningful participation and leadership of diverse gender identities in policymaking, governance and community planning. This can help to address power imbalances, remove legal barriers and promote fair access to resources, protection and empowerment for all.

Gender is a key structural determinant of disaster vulnerability. Tackling gendered inequalities is essential for inclusive DRM and for achieving equitable, sustainable development outcomes. Hydrometeorological disasters can amplify existing systemic gender inequalities through multilayered effects – economic, social, health, educational and political. Table 5.1 summarizes gendered inequalities and impacts across the four DRM stages, along with their consequences on development outcomes. Gendered disaster inequalities can result in disproportionate impacts on women, girls and gender-diverse people. Such impacts include increased gender-based violence (GBV) and exclusion from recovery efforts. These dynamics may weaken disaster preparedness and delay recovery, thereby perpetuating gender inequalities and undermining human rights. Ignoring gendered inequalities can affect humanitarian response and long-term development. Targeted, gender-responsive policies and gender-transformative actions in each DRM stage can help to achieve resilient sustainable development, especially in the context of SDG 6 and SDG 13. Improvement of development outcomes can depend on integration of gender considerations into disaster resilience efforts.

Equitable access to hydrometeorological services, reduced gender-based inequalities, stronger community resilience and enhanced participation in DRM practices can lead to sustainable water development and inclusive climate resilience.

Although gender mainstreaming and DRM are broadly endorsed and there is now greater awareness of gender-related considerations in DRM, practical implementation – by National Disaster ManagementAuthorities (NDMAs) and National Meteorologicaland Hydrological Services (NMHSs) – remains limited, partly due to insufficient guidance. Two landmark publications that responded to this need were Making Disaster Risk Reduction Gender-Sensitive:Policy and Practical Guidelines and Gender Sensitive Disaster Management: A Toolkit for Practitioners. They covered policy guidance and practical tools such as gender-sensitive risk assessments, EWS and monitoring indicators. Since then, many studies have reported the need for gender mainstreaming, along with local and national case studies, for example: from eastern Africa to southern Africa to Pacific islands to Asia and South America. The content of these publications extends across a wide range of topics, from EWS to disaster response and recovery, as well as the development of policy and legislative frameworks. Yet, their scope is narrowly defined, focusing exclusively on women and girls, thereby excluding broader considerations of gender diversity and the roles of gender-diverse individuals in achieving inclusive outcomes. In addressing hydrometeorological disasters, gender considerations differ across the four DRM stages. Table 5.2 illustrates how gender considerations could be integrated into strategies of mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery – through gender-sensitive, gender-responsive and gender-transformative approaches. Mitigation efforts that incorporate gender considerations can help to build resilient infrastructure and inclusive policies that may reduce long-term risks and promote sustainable integrated water resourcesmanagement (IWRM). During preparedness, inclusive approaches can enhance community capacity (e.g. design of safe shelters; Box 5.1), ensuring people can access timely warnings and take protective actions, thereby reducing disaster impacts. The United Nations Early Warnings for All initiative promotes the development of multi-hazard and inclusive EWS. ‘Inclusive’ explicitly includes gender considerations, ensuring everyone has equitable access to timely, understandable, and actionable warning information, and that their different needs, vulnerabilities and capacities are integrated throughout the early warning chain. In the response phase, equitable and tailored interventions can help to protect vulnerable populations and uphold human rights, minimizing the immediate social and economic damage caused by disasters. Finally, recovery centred on inclusivity may foster social justice by empowering marginalized groups with equal access to resources, decision-making and livelihood restoration, laying the foundation for more resilient and equitable communities. Across all stages, integrating gender can transform DRM from reactive to proactive, with sustainable development that may benefit everyone.

The sharing of DRM case studies supported by formal evidence reported in scientific literature is progressing. However, many good practices remain in grey literature as they often emerge from practical development projects. Further gender-sensitive research could aid understanding of how gender influences people’s experiences of floods, droughts and other climate-related hazards (e.g. how women may face greater impediments than men in accessing early warnings or recovery resources). Such research could guide the development of disaster and climate policies, which can better protect and empower everyone. The diversity of DRM case studies shows there is no one-size-fits-all solution. A thorough analysis is required to understand national, cultural and regional sensitivities, which might differ from developed to developing countries. Gendered approaches should consider the contextual diversity as defined by historical disparities, cultural sensitivities, institutional maturity and community dynamics.

Governments, donors, civil society and implementing agencies should move from gender-blind or gender-sensitive to fully gender-responsive and inclusive DRM. This requires design of gender-transformative DRM policies and practices. A critical first step is the systematic collection and reporting of sex-disaggregated data on vulnerabilities and impacts. Understanding how gender affects exposure, access to resources, needs and responses to hydrometeorological disasters is essential. It lays the groundwork for designing DRM interventions and also for formulating climate adaptation strategies – within national adaptation plans (NAPs) – that are targeted, equitable and inclusive. The lack of sex-disaggregated data can undermine the ability of policymakers to craft interventions that support women, girls and gender-diverse people in adapting to climate change and its impacts on availability of water resources. The development of clear indicators and robust frameworks to guide data-driven action can help to address the lack of data. Box 5.2 presents examples of data, information and indicators that could be used – from simple to more advanced – tailored to varying levels of readiness.

Knowing which data and indicators to collect and report is essential, but not sufficient. It is equally important to understand the methods and approaches for collecting such data. Traditional techniques include surveys and questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. A combination of participatory methods, surveys, administrative data and qualitative tools could be used to capture diverse experiences. When using gender-sensitive questionnaires, it is important to train the interviewers on gender issues and ethics to build trust and ensure accurate data collection. Respecting privacy and confidentiality is imperative, especially when handling sensitive information. Keeping track of gender-specific outcomes and outputs is a crucial aspect in DRM projects. It is best to disaggregate project-related indicators by sex (e.g. the number of people trained, access to resources or participation rates). Several exemplary tools and frameworks aid this purpose. For instance, the Training Manual on Gender and Climate Resilience has a detailed outline of useful tools for gender mainstreaming in climate change and DRM. Another is the UNESCO WWAP Toolkit on Sex-Disaggregated Water Data. Other notable examples include the framework by the Climate Risk and Early WarningSystems initiative and the Gender Action LearningSystem methodology. Although some of these are not specifically DRM oriented, they offer a road map for operationalizing the shift to gender-responsive DRM. Mainstreaming gender into EWS and integrated flood management has received considerable attention. For example, a training manual and a facilitator guide offer practical guidance on mainstreaming gender through gender-responsive planning, budgeting, and monitoring and evaluation within the project development processes. Such manuals and guidelines are important. Design and implementation of gender-transformative approaches need structure and mandates across all organizations, from NMHSs and NDMAs to non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

Looking ahead, several key priorities could guide the systematic collection and use of sex-disaggregated data: • This task could be mandated across all types of disasters to ensure comprehensive and inclusive risk analysis. • Gender indicators that are cross-sectoral could be used to reflect the interconnected nature of vulnerabilities and responses. • Integrating intersectional dimensions (e.g. age, disability and ethnicity) may enhance the equity, relevance and effectiveness of disaster vulnerability assessments and resilience planning, ultimately leading to more just and responsive DRM systems. • Establishing robust accountability mechanisms and anti-corruption controls can aid the effectiveness and long-term sustainability of gender-transformative initiatives. Many such efforts remain ad hoc or symbolic, lacking the depth required for systemic change. A sustained and institutionalized approach to measuring and monitoring of gender-related actions and commitments – across policy, programming and implementation levels – may be necessary to assess impact, ensure compliance and guide improvement. It is important this work is carried out with sensitivity to national, institutional and cultural contexts. As Prakash et al. suggests this could begin with a thorough analysis that includes: (a) assessing the use of gender-related terms and language, (b) identifying embedded biases and stereotypes, (c) evaluating how gender issues are represented, (d) reviewing the overall level of gender sensitivity and (e) highlighting the portrayal of gender roles and responsibilities.

Achieving water and climate resilience amid increasingly extreme hydrometeorological disasters demands more than technical solutions. It requires integrating a clear understanding of gender dynamics to effectively promote equality in the ways people deal with disasters. Better understanding of the gender dimension of water and climate change could help to achieve gender equality in DRR and disaster recovery. Women’s leadership in disaster governance and the delivery of hydrometeorological services may help to build community resilience. It is also time gender strategies started going beyond a focus on women and girls to also include genderdiverse people. The talents, energy and skills of all genders are often underused assets for the support of climate action, and could be harnessed universally across geographies and institutional contexts. Systems that are gender-responsive and gendertransformative can foster meaningful and lasting disaster resilience. Integrating gender across the stages of DRM and climate adaptation is especially critical to water-centric sectors,15 which are highly sensitive to water availability, distribution and governance. Such integration can enhance the effectiveness, legitimacy and long-term sustainability of policies and interventions. Furthermore, this integration could be supported by cross-sector collaboration among governments, NGOs, communities

 and donors. In doing so, alignment with national climate plans (e.g. NAPs), climate financing mechanisms and SDG commitments could be prioritized. Box 5.3 presents the key objectives from the Gender Action Plan to Support Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. Governments should consider the following preliminary practical steps, listed in order from simpler to more demanding: • Establish gender focal points in relevant ministries (e.g. environment, water, disaster management and climate change) and provide commensurate budget to implement actions. • Design training courses on mainstreaming gender for NMHSs and NDMAs. • Mandate sex-disaggregated data collection (across sectoral assessments relevant to hydrometeorological disasters). • Promote gender-sensitive research to form the evidence base for design of gendertransformative strategies. • Institutionalize gender accountability across all levels (national, regional and local) and within relevant organizations (e.g. NMHSs, NDMAs and NGOs). • Embed substantive gender equality mandates in national DRM, IWRM and climate policies (NAPs and nationally determined contributions), in alignment with national gender action plans. • Finance and monitor inclusive disaster infrastructure and disaster governance, with a focus on hydrometeorological services delivery. A truly climate-resilient future – one that is inclusive and equitable – can be achieved only through deliberate, collaborative and sustained efforts across all sectors and levels of governance.