Industry, Business and Energy.

 

Industrial development is accelerating across lowand middle-income countries, increasing demand for water in manufacturing, energy and servicesectors. At the same time, global efforts to achieve gender equality, including Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, and ensure access to clean water andsanitation for all (SDG 6), have revealed persistent gaps in how women participate in and are affected by industrial water use. As the effects of climate change, urbanization and scarcity of resources grow more pressing, the intersection of women, water and industry is a critical yet under-explored policy priority. This part discusses challenges, sector-specific dynamics and potential responses for inclusive and sustainable development in the use of water in industry, business and energy. One of the guiding principles of the 1992 Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development stated that “Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water” . Nevertheless, the interrelationships of women, water and industry are still not well documented. Moreover, data are insufficiently disaggregated, and most publications present particular case studies from specific locations. Women comprise 40% of the global workforce, of which 24% are employed in industry. Fifteen per cent of the total volume of freshwater withdrawals are due to industry. Therefore, women in industry participate in the use of significant amounts of fresh water globally. The involvement of women in the industrial use of water can be examined from two distinct perspectives: the water services sector, providing drinking water and treating wastewater; and water-intensive industries, including energy production.

The connection between water and jobs is receiving increasing attention. Many jobs depend on water, and the water sector is struggling to attract, train and retain human resources in many parts of the world. The latter is particularly true for women’s participation, including in management and leadership positions. According to a World Bank study, in the period 2018–2019, the share of women employees in water utilities at the global level was 17.7% (Figure 4.1). In general, the trend has been towards increasing women’s participation. However, differences between organizations, localities and types of employment can be significant. While some water utilities have close to 40% of women employees, there are some entities and locations with no female staff. Of the companies sampled by the World Bank, 32% had no woman engineers, even if, in the water services sector, women appeared to be slightly better represented in management positions than in other sectors. Countries such as Indonesia show it is possible to progress towards achieving gender equality in drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector employment, particularly in positions such as community sanitation and health work. However, progress seems difficult for senior roles, where challenges include ensuring a work–life balance with family responsibilities and bias against women in management positions. Government and corporate policies can fall short in addressing the distinct needs and contributions of women working or aspiring to work in the water services industry. Consequently, women are often underrepresented in management and decision-making regarding water. One study identified 26 countries that placed restrictions on women working in various manual roles in the water sector. 

There is evidence that companies which improved gender diversity in management were 46% more likely to reduce water use. Nevertheless, there is also evidence from several countries that female entrepreneurs do not have the same access to source water as their male counterparts. For the specific case of water-related businesses, a study in Cambodia found insufficient or irregular access to water resources year-round was among the main challenges faced by female entrepreneurs who set up businesses in the water services sector. Conversely, a study in Indonesia about strengthening diversity among female WASH entrepreneurs did not point out differences in access to water resources. Rather, the emphasis was put on challenges related to access to the resources needed to develop and operate a business (e.g. finance, health, education, information, mobility and networks). Small and medium enterprises may be particularly affected, as they tend to have more women in management roles than men. 

Access to energy is essential for water use indomestic and agricultural settings, especially where water pumping is required. While women have traditionally operated manual pumps, the shift to fuel- and solar-powered systems offers time-saving benefits. Women can be primary beneficiaries of such technologies, yet often face obstacles to accessing the energy and financing needed to use them.

In countries such as India and Senegal, solar water pumps have been used to improve access to energy and water, although regulation is needed to prevent aquifer overuse and ensure effective water storage. In Tajikistan, large hydropower plants are used to generate cheap and clean electricity to operate pumped irrigation schemes for mountain agriculture, upon which the livelihoods of millions of rural inhabitants depend. However, to build reservoirs for hydropower plants, rural communities can be displaced, with a severe impact on people’s livelihoods. More men than women tend to migrate from such areas to cities and abroad, leaving many women behind. In some contexts, small hydropower plants may provide a viable alternative to large ones (Box 4.1).

Primarily in low-income countries, progress on access to WASH in Households is reducing the time spent fetching water, as well as improving health and providing several other benefits. These can contribute to enabling women to join the industrial workforce and engage in business activities. However, access to WASH in workplaces can be problematic. WASH in workplaces is known to improve workforce productivity and health. For example, in Viet Nam, a survey showed an increase of 7.6% of profitability in workplaces where workers expressed greater satisfaction with water, air quality, restrooms, canteens and health services provided in the factory, holding other factors constant. However, sanitary facilities are still not always provided separately for men and women; often they are not fit for the specific needs of women, including menstruating, pregnant and lactating women. There are limited data on how many workplaces have sufficient levels of WASH facilities and how often they are suitable for women. Several countries and organizations have adopted guidelines for the number of toilets for workers, differentiating requirements for men and women. However, guidelines may not apply to smaller enterprises and may not fully consider the different requirements of men and women. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can play a key role in the development of such guidelines and in the promotion of inclusivity.

The health and environmental impacts of industrial and mining-related water pollution can disproportionately affect women. In some regions, contaminated water sources may result in women, children and older people being left behind as men migrate to urban areas or other countries. In addition, the effects of pollution can be tangible and far-reaching, whether or not its presence is known to the population, industry and authorities. Access to clean and safe water is a pressing issue. Those who remain in polluted areas must cope with the consequences daily.  

Industrial pollutants can severely compromise the quality of water available for people’s needs, leading to a range of negative health outcomes. The burden of managing household water safety and the risks associated with contaminated water often falls heavily on women, amplifying existing disparities between women and men, and posing significant challenges to women’s health and dignity. These disparities can intersect with other issues, multiplying the impacts for some women (Box 4.2). Endocrine disrupting chemicals are a growing concern. They are pollutants, generally of industrial origin (e.g. certain plastics and pharmaceuticals), that can affect humans and animals, mostly through water, including drinking, underground and wastewater sources. These chemicals are particularly related to serious health issues for women, such as polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis and breast cancer, even at low concentrations.

In regions where industrial water use results in scarcity – such as around textile industries and mining sites (Box 4.3) – and where women have traditionally borne the primary responsibility for collecting water, women may be forced to spend even more time and energy travelling greater distances to secure water for their households. This time poverty increases the physical burden of women and also limits opportunities for women to engage in paid employment, participate in educational pursuits or contribute to other economic activities. This can further entrench cycles of inequality, as the everyday necessity of water collection overtakes other aspects of personal and community development. Industrial projects that demand significant water resources (e.g. hydropower) can lead to the displacement of communities, with particularly acute impacts in developing countries. Often more reliant on local natural resources for household sustenance and small-scale economic activities, women are especially vulnerable to the negative consequences of displacement. They may lose access to vital resources, and may also be excluded from decision-making processes related to resettlement or compensation. This exclusion can lead to increased economic insecurity, loss of traditional livelihoods and heightened vulnerability to poverty and marginalization. The combined effects of displacement and scarcity of resources can reinforce existing disparities between women and men.

Industrial and energy uses of water through technological advances (e.g. better wastewater treatment) have brought improvements to the daily lives of many people. The provision of piped water supply to homes and central locations has lessened the time and physical effort many women and girls spend collecting water. Powered water pumps have reduced the reliance on manual hand pumps, which are labour intensive. Moreover, introducing household appliances has reduced time-consuming domestic tasks, allowing more time for education, employment and other activities. Beyond the home, industrial development has made workplaces more accommodating and safer. Innovations such as flushing toilets, sanitation facilities and cleaning products contribute to workplace hygiene and comfort, which is vital in industrial settings where many women and men are employed. These innovations additionally play a role in promoting gender equality in the workforce by creating environments that better support women’s health, dignity and participation in economic activity.

Women play a significant role across the entire textile and garment value chain: from the production of raw materials to design, production and retail. In 2019, approximately 91 million workers globally were employed in the textile and garment sectors, more than half of whom were women. In garment manufacturing, women have been estimated to account for about 80% of employment. However, working conditions are often poor, including poor WASH facilities. The rights to breaks to drink, urinate and wash may be limited if not inexistant to meet production and profitability targets. The textile and garment industry can use large amounts of water for wet processing, which sometimes involves the use of toxic contaminants that pollute water and requires adhering to specific standards to reduce risks to workers, communities and the environment. Water can also be used for boiling, cooling or steaming purposes, as well as to clean machinery and facilities. The production of cotton and other raw materials used in the textile industry is a large user of water, including in water-scarce countries such as Egypt, Pakistan and Uzbekistan.

According to estimates from the International Labour Organization, tourism can contribute 2.5% of the gross domestic product globally, reaching to over 10% in some countries. Around 45% of employees in tourism are women, including female entrepreneurs. Women are particularly present in the food and beverage business and often in micro, small and medium enterprises. Global direct water use for tourism was notably less than 1% in 2012, and is not likely to grow significantly. Tourism can occur in areas with limited fresh water available and frequently in dry locations. Conservation of water and management of wastewater are important for sustainability, especially for local communities, where health issues may arise. A literature review of the tourism–water nexus pointed out that regions may have water challenges because of the competition between tourism and local communities, which could be exacerbated by climate change. It follows that the lives and caregiving roles of many women may be strongly affected by poor drinking water quality and bad sanitation in locations where tourism is significant in using water. The authors noted that gender has received little attention in the literature, but highlighted studies where women-led communities have opposed tourism investors in Spain, of privatization for tourism in Colombia and where women have become involved in conservation as professionals and environmental stewards in Mexico

Business and industry can promote gender equality in water use by championing policies and practices rooted in sustainability, equity and inclusivity. Company-level policies and investment are critical to ensure the unique needs of women are integrated into water management, sanitation and workplace health standards. Moreover, industry could invest in water-efficient technologies to reduce pollution and alleviate the burdens placed upon women outside the workplace. It could also engage with affected communities – particularly women – to ensure industrial water use does not undermine local water security. Transparent reporting further supports accountability, which remains a cornerstone for advancing women’s participation in resources governance. Beyond policies, industry can initiate training, promote women’s leadership and invest in community water infrastructure. These actions may benefit all people and strengthen social and environmental outcomes. As part of corporate social responsibility, industry could fund initiatives that support women’s access to water, education and livelihoods. This might include scholarships for women studying water management or investing in women-led water-based enterprises.

Industry operating in rural and under-served areas could prioritize initiatives that address water insecurity, with a particular focus on the requirements of women in these communities. This includes investing in projects that ensure reliable access to safe drinking water, implementing irrigation systems to support farmers and developing sanitation and hygiene solutions tailored for women and girls. Collaboration with NGOs and governments, and alignment with international frameworks like the SDGs, can help to ensure industry efforts are globally informed and locally impactful. In this manner, industry could help to create a future in which water resources management (WRM) is sustainable and fair to everyone.

Addressing gender inequality in water use requires a comprehensive approach, anchored in policy reform, community engagement and sustainable industrial practices. Inclusive governance, where women actively participate in water-related decision-making, can lead to more equitable, effective and sustainable outcomes in society and industry. Policies could prioritize women’s participation in water-related decision-making, supported by gender impact assessments and accountability mechanisms. Mandatory investment in workplace infrastructure – providing safe and appropriate drinking water and sanitation – is important to achieve gender equality. Furthermore, strengthening and enforcing regulations on industrial water pollution, encouraging the  adoption of water-efficient technologies and supporting capacity-building initiatives for women in water-dependent sectors can collectively reduce negative impacts on communities and the environment.

Promoting women’s empowerment economically and socially is also vital. This can be fostered by offering training, encouraging women’s leadership in water governance and supporting women’s participation in water-related entrepreneurship. Incorporating considerations about women into environmental and social impact assessments, and consulting with women in planning and advocating for legal frameworks that guarantee women’s rights to water are critical steps towards more inclusive water governance. Collaborative action between governments, industries and communities could help to ensure equitable and sustainable WRM forall. Self-organization and women-led confrontation can also be part of the solution, as evidenced in the above-mentioned example of the tourism industry.

Gender audits can be effective tools for systematically evaluating the extent to which gender equality is embedded within organizations, programmes and sectors, including in industry, business and energy. These audits examine policies, workplace practices and leadership structures to identify inequities that may limit women’s participation or where they may benefit from opportunities and resources. Such audits have been successfully applied in diverse contexts. For instance, the United Nations Development Programme’s Gender Equality Seal programme and the International Labour Organization participatory gender audit methodology help companies and organizations assess the balance between men and women in employment, leadership, remuneration and work–life policies, leading to measurable improvements. In the WASH sector, such audits assess the differential impacts of water use, pollution and governance on women and men, highlighting the need for targeted policies and interventions – particularly where industrial activities affect community access to WASH. By exposing gaps and recommending actions, audits can help to drive the adoption of inclusive strategies – such as increasing women’s representation in decision-making bodies, revising workplace infrastructure and sanitation, and supporting women’s leadership development.

 In water-intensive industries, such audits have led to initiatives that improve women’s access to resources, technical training and participation in sector governance, whereas audits in infrastructure and energy projects have promoted more equitable compensation and resources allocation for women in affected communities. Gender audits can promote transparency, accountability and policy reform, helping to ensure women and men benefit equally from industrial development and resources management.